The School Language as a Revolutionary Tool:
An Analysis of 19th-Century European Language Planning and Education

Language Planning & Nationalism

Hidden under the deafening clangs of industrialization and modernization, a radical transformation in language swept over the European continent during the 19th century. Fastened to the identity cult of nationalism, old and new European states began utilizing schooling to cultivate a national identity centered on a common, standardized language. This continent-wide implementation marks the first example of the linguistic concept of language planning in history: a deliberate effort to influence the function, structure, or acquisition of languages. Examining the structures governments implemented to influence and control the European linguasphere—such as schooling systems, laws, and social hierarchy—reveals how these newly formed school languages acted as tools for revolution and nationalism in multiethnic nations.

A defining characteristic of 19th-century Europe is the rise of nationalism. Building on the ideas of the Enlightenment, French Revolution, and Napoleon, national identity became the most powerful tool of the state. Nationalists seeking power in increasingly centralizing government systems recognized the statemaking force of language-first identity politics. Political and social leaders such as Otto von Bismarck of Prussia, Jonas Furrer of the Swiss Confederation, and Elias Lönnrot of Finland institutionalized standardized language as a political tool, while leaders like Alexander II of Russia, Franz Joseph I of Austria-Hungary, and Abdülhamid of the Ottoman Empire failed to recognize its importance—ultimately leading to the collapse of their empires in the 20th century.

Schools: Language Standardization

At the start of the 19th century, Europe had over 100 distinct languages and hundreds of dialects. While French, German, and English were well-established lingua francas for elite discourse and trade, language-learning resources were underdeveloped, relying primarily on the printing press and text-based instruction (Wiley & Wright, 2004). However, with the rise of public education systems, states took direct control over linguistic planning. By the late 19th century, nearly every European state—apart from Russia—had implemented mandatory education policies (Dolgunsöz, 2014).

Prior to the 19th century, European schooling was largely religious in nature. The major shifts in education during this period were (1) the implementation of secular curricula and (2) the adoption of modern languages as core subjects (Dolgunsöz, 2014). Governments selected a dominant dialect, often linked to economic or dynastic centers, and enforced its use through education. As a result, students would speak the standardized language at school while continuing to use regional dialects at home, creating a generation of code-switchers (Wiley & Wright, 2004).

Case Studies: Successes and Failures of School Language Policies

Finland: A Model of Linguistic Unification

Under Russian occupation, Finland had no standardized language; Swedish dominated among elites, Russian in administration, and Finnish existed only in fragmented dialects. Elias Lönnrot, a Finnish philologist, sought to unify the nation through language. By collecting oral and literary folktales and compiling a Finnish dictionary in 1880, Lönnrot laid the foundation for a standardized school language (Latomaa & Nuolijärvi, 2005). Finnish schools followed, propagating a unified national identity that contributed to Finland's independence in 1917.

Austria-Hungary: Language as a Double-Edged Sword

Unlike Finland, Austria-Hungary's 1867 December Constitution attempted to accommodate linguistic diversity by granting minority groups the right to maintain and cultivate their languages in schools. This policy led to the rapid standardization of Slovene, Serbo-Croatian, Polish, and Ruthenian (Schjerve-Rindler & Vetter, 2007). However, fearing separatist movements, Austrian and Hungarian authorities suppressed Czech and Slovak education, fueling resentment and contributing to the empire's dissolution after World War I.

The Ottoman Empire: Neglecting Linguistic Policy

In contrast to Finland and Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire neglected Turkish schooling entirely. Until 1859, Turkish remained largely an oral language among the ruling class, while language education in the empire was decentralized, left to local communities. When Abdülhamid II finally introduced public education, it inadvertently accelerated nationalist movements. Greek, Romanian, and Bulgarian were standardized within decades, leading to independence movements and the eventual collapse of Ottoman rule in the Balkans (Dolgunsöz, 2014).

Conclusion

In the 19th century, public education in a national language became both a tool for state-building and a weapon of revolution. Whether through successful linguistic unification (Finland), failed policies leading to fragmentation (Austria-Hungary), or neglect that fueled separatism (Ottoman Empire), language planning through schooling shaped the political landscape of modern Europe. While industrialization and mass politics were major forces in nationalism, perhaps the most enduring revolutionary act was a standardized greeting in a schoolhouse—zdravo, druže (hello, comrade).